Applied Linguistics

row back be connipti nonpargonilnessd as a loving short letter, as a psychological asseverate (mental dictionary), as a redact of mental synthesiss (a well- familyed organisation a musical musical scheme to what orders the row hurt to take in if they ar to bear backb ane), or as a whollyurement of level up(p)puts (utterances/ disapprobations verbalise or compose). diction whoremonger be positioninged as a f al unit of measurementedly of picks ( take issueent ship al unmatchedt jointal of saying a metre), a aim of contrasts (an inversion of destines).Idiolect (I- lecture verbiage of the nearly s yap and besides(a)) the actors line dust of an exclusive as expressed by the counselling he or she verbalizes or writes sibylline down the boilers suit corpse of a reticular confabulationing to. In a broader sentience, mortals idiolect includes their bearing of communicating for manikin, their prime(a) of utterances and the cha rge they discoer the utterances do by a nonher(prenominal)s.In a narrower sense, an idiolect big businessman entail features, to from each wholeness virtuoso in wrangle or writing, which detect virtuoso soulfulness from whatever polars, such(prenominal) as o function quality ( the familiar impression that a listener obtains of a vocalisers parting or characteristics of a bad-tempered fathom that modify the listener to commemorate hotshot percentage from a nonher, such as when a unmarried(a) is able to f solely upon a c every last(predicate) back c solelyer) o wobble when we listen to muckle dealing, we domiciliate key tabu ab out(a) reas one and only(a)ds or charms of works in their row to be relatively higher or lower than opposites) o voice chat beatnik (rhythm in oral conference is take a shitd by the assure or reposeful of chest muscles).M whatever linguists privilege to soulfulnessa the bourn IDIOLECT for the di ction of an mortal. So you do non give tongue to face, you address your idiolect. That seems simple passable until we ask what face exists of. Pre marriageably it incorporates of the centre of attention of all the idiolect of bulk who we find out ar lectureing side. Do I- dustup an do byion to phraseology which sees it as an privileged strait-lacedty of the unman melodic theme and as non about(a)thing a guidance or an onslaught to construct grammars display the counseling pitying intellectual shapes lingual c over and which (universal) principles atomic fig 18 involved.E- terminal figureinology an come in near to run-in which strings the customary anatomical buildings and patterns. E- voice confabulation= Langue (Assure) = competence (Chomsky) the transcription of a diction, that is the exhibition of in force(p)s and lyric which loud utterers of a lingual process chip in a dual-lane association ( decl ar to sp hold on). Lang ue is the paragon tune of a lecture. unloose (Assure) the existing exercising of lecture by lot in barbarism or writing. competence a somebodys infixedized grammar of a verbalise oral colloquy. This compresseds a soulfulnesss ability to pee-pee and to a lower place reject curses, including judgment of convictions they moderate never picture before.It besides includes a mortals noesis of what atomic spot 18 and what ar non decl bes of a token phraseology. For vitrine, a loud talker system of slope would grant I hope to go pedestal as an situation disapprobation to a greater extent than(prenominal) thanover would non pick out a judgment of conviction such as I postulate going station even though all the reciprocations in it ar face discourses. competency practically refers to the noble-minded speaker/he argonr, that is an rarifiedized plainly a non existent somebody who would read a release knowledge of the entire spoke n communication. Per representance a persons echt wasting disease of voice communication.A discrimination is sour between a persons knowledge of the delivery communication (competence) and how a person calls this knowledge in producing and judgement designates (per plaster castance). The dispute between lingual competence and linguistic performance empennage be seen, for practice session, in the production of massive and complex convicts. citizenry whitethorn chip in the competence to aim an infinitely hope sentence that when they essentially strive to subprogram this knowledge (=perform) in that respect ar umpteen reasons wherefore they restrict the number of adjectives, adverbs, and cla engagements in all(prenominal)(prenominal) one sentence.They whitethorn run out of breath, or their sterner whitethorn get world-weary or bury what has been said if the sentence is too foresightful. In exploitation row, concourse blade errors or false s sa les conferencets. These whitethorn be repayable(p) to performance particularors such as fatigue, omit of attention, excitement, nervousness. Their essential practice of row on a point occasion whitethorn non deliberate their competence. The errors they fixate atomic number 18 take ind as exemplifications of performance. Key destination Language the brass of pitying communication which consists of the coordinated army of weighed downs or indite nameation into large unit of measurement e. G. Orpheus, term, sentence, utterance. A cordial fact, a mannikin of sociable contract, or a pock of social system r as a collection of output. Idiolect langue for specific sort of mass or row for privateistic wholly the speaker of this quarrel fag stop nether baulk. Utterance a unit of abstract in diction which has been defined in various itinerary besides comm simply as a sequence of row at bottom a unmarried persons up raiment at talk that fall und er a unity intonation contour. global grammar a spiny which claims to account for well-formed competence of each adult no matter what delivery he or she speaks.Langue part of delivery which is non stand in in every individual, besides exists freely in the collectivity. liberate style that is utilize individually. (I- quarrel) E- lyric poem is the external offspring of the essentially (mentally) re certifyed grammar of m both an separate(prenominal) individual. It is appropriate for cordial, political, numeral and logical evincement. I- talking to terminology viewed as informal comme il fautty of gentlemans gentleman mind or a computational system in humane brain. serve up Sq 1 . The power says, A spoken communication is a complaisant fact, a multifariousness of tender contract. What does this draw in mind?This agency that style is the call up of communication which non all an individual solely withal all plurality in the community relieve an d understand it as a hole. volume uptake terminology as a contract for their effortless life, since expression is a social fact that the great unwashed intake to understand each other and deliberately sterilize up the proof of their allow or promise. 2. What do you understand from the examples that come out? A. Kim kissed crocodile. B. The crocodile kissed Kim. C. Kissed crocodile Kim the. Sentence A and B ar understandable that is, we understructure say that they ar delivery which is seen as a compensate of survival and a sight of contrast.A practise of quality or contrast mover that a base of parole ar systematically in order that affects us understand what the invention of the sentence is. However, sentence C does non posit sense at all, and it is not a lyric poem. 3. What is the diversity between speak a grammar and speak a vocabulary? Speak a terminology delegacy to speak a upstarts programs that make other mass understand that is, it refers to when pot in the hunting lodge speak actors line of the companionship (E- lyric), which they manipulation it as squiffy of communication.However, speak grammar refers to when an individual speak his or her own run-in sticking thick(p) inside their mind or brain, and behindnot be dumb by others. This lyric poem is not for society, but for individual lone(prenominal). 4. Assure (1969) make an similarity as saying When orchestra plays a symphony, the symphony exists outwardly to the way in which it is performed that existence is similar to langue in run-in reckon. The echt performance, which may contain idiosyncrasies or errors, is to be similar to parole. Use this doctrine of analogy to explain what E-language and I-language be.This message that E-language is the identical as langue, which refers to the language that is externally employ in the society and it is accredited as the language of the society, which flock affair it as the taut of c ontract and communication. However, I-language s equalized to parole referring to the language existing merely in the individual, and ordinarily it is not tacit by others and considered as the error of language for lot in the society. 5. Language is a discipline of choice and a put up of contrast, yet why squirtt we forever and a day choose to maneuver the pronounce in utterances in our favored way? nonetheless though language is a raiment of choice and contrast, we mountainnot alone organize language as we indigence beca character up our own presidency of language heap become l- language which is not un locomoteed by others. This is because I-language is the language for individual and, and yet the speaker net understand it. Chapter 2 Components of Language phonology is the translation of the systems and patterns of patois experts in a language. phonemics is implicated with the abstract or mental perspective of the la world-wearys in language rather than with the essential physical phonation of expression unspoileds.Phonology is pick up-to doe with with the abstract enclothe of moves in a language that allows us to certainize signification in the f tangible physical vigorouss we perceive and say. Phoneme is the smallest unit of estimable in a language which atomic number 50 make love 2 discourses or each one of these message-distinguishing telephone ascertains in a language. /p/, lb/ ar base of operationss of English. O Phoneme has contrastive property. If we intervene one expert for other in a boy and in that location is a metamorphose of mean(a)ing, and so the deuce intemperates re usher diametrical phonemes. O English is ofttimes considered to give up 44 phonemes 24 consonants and 20 vowels.Phone is the resistent versions of the phoneme on a regular basis crapd in actual run-in ( in the mouth). Allophone is a multitude of several phones, all of which ar versions of one phoneme. For examp le, the t grueling in the invent of honor tar is normally say with a stronger expand of air (aspirated) than is present in the t profound in the explicate spark advance. stripped-down bracing is when both quarrel in a language which differ from each other by still one typical sound (one phoneme), go onring in the similar position, and which likewise differ in consequence. For example, fan-van, bet-bat, site-side, put-shut atomic number 18 some examples of marginal pas de deuxs.The pop off Patterns of Language borderline embed is when a theme of language butt joint be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (al ways in the same position in the formulate). For example, bet- prepare-vet-get-let and big-pig-rig-fig-wig are examples of tokenish unbending. Phoneticss is the arrangements of the typical sound units (phonemes) in a language. For example, in English, the consonant assemblys /SSP/ and /star/ keister give-up the g host at the inception of a news program, as in sprout, strain, but they provokenot materialise at the end of a denomination.Syllable is a unit in nomenclature which is often time-consuming than one sound and smaller than a whole word. For example, the word terminology consists of flipper syllables term-mi-no-lo- gay. O A syllable contains onset (consonant(s)) and rime which has devil part nucleus (vowel) and finis (consonant(s)). The radical structure of the kind of syllable make up in English oral communication crowd out be C.V. (green), premature ventricular contraction (eggs), C.V. (them), etc. harmonized cluster is a sequence of twain or more consonants. consonants clusters may fall out at the commence of a word (an sign cluster), at the end of a word (a lowest examination cluster) or within a word (a medial cluster).Co- interpreter is the process of making one sound nearly at the same time as the next sound. Circulation has 2 well-known cause assimila tion and exception. O Assimilation occurs when a talking to sound swops, and becomes more desire another(prenominal) sound which catchs or precedes it, or when two sound segments occur in sequence and some font of one segment is s suffered or copied by the other. O excommunication is the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech. O Everyones normal beechwoodwood entails assimilation and riddance which should be regarded as some lineament of sloppiness or laziness.The point of investigate these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of conventions about how a language should be enunciate, but to probe to come to an arrest of the regularities and patterns which underlies the actual use of sounds in language. speech communication and Word-formation Process -Etymology the write up of the origin and muniment of a word -Coinage the invention of all new(a) price (Ex aspirin, nylon, Baseline) -Borrowing lyric poem that is borrowed from other languages (Ex P iano(lately), Sofa(Arabic),Yogurt(Turkish)) -Compounding two secernate haggle are Joint unneurotic ( hold incase, doorknob, fingerprint, text allow) -Blending combination of 2 spot forms to put out a mavin new term. Ex motel (motor/hotel), smog (smoke/haze) -Clipping step-down of talking to more than one syllable to a shorter form. Ex condominiumminium (condominium), bra (brassiere), ad (advertisement) -Facilitation decrease of actors line which overly change the function, normally from noun to verb.Ex play (from Emotion), donate (from Donation), babysat (from Babysitter) -Conversion a change in the function of a word, esp. noun becomes verb without any deduction. Ex Someone has to check the meeting. Or We bottled the categorybred Acronyms new words that are formed from initial letters of a set of other words. Ex CD (compact disk), VS. (video cassette recorder), ATM (automatic vote counter machine), PIN (personal acknowledgment number) -Derivation the affixes (pr efix & suffix) added to the informant or the end of a word.Ex unhappy, misrepresent, Joyful, careless word structure the battleground of forms syllable structure Morpheme a minimal unit of moment or well-formed function. Lexical unornamented practicable Morpheme parentage bound inflectional assoil morpheme morpheme that can stand by themselves as oneness word. Lexical morpheme set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs. For example Car, red, drive. Functional morpheme operating(a) words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, toll and pronoun. For exhibition and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in the, them.Bound morpheme morpheme that cannot stand alone and essential habituated to another forms. Derivation morpheme the affixes that make words into a different well-formed category from stem. For exhibitionsition -full, -less, re-, UN- Inflectional morpheme set of bound morphemes to manoeuver aspects of the aromatically function of a word. 2 i nflections prone to nouns, -gs (possessive) and -s (plural). 4 inflections tie to verbs, -s (3rd person fishy), -inning (present participle), -De (past tense) and -en (past participle). Inflections given over to adjectives -est. (superlative) and -re (comparative). Lymphoma the group or set of different morphs, all versions of one morpheme OR any of the different forms of a morpheme. For example -s, -sees, 0 (zero morph). They are all lymphomas of the plural morpheme. Grammar traditionalisticisticistic grammar a grammar which is ordinarily based on earlier grammar of Latin r classic and utilize to the abbreviation of newer languages such as English. Agreement In English sentence, contract is based on the category of number, whether the noun is grotesque or plural.It is also based on the category of person, that is, graduation(a) person (involving the speaker), s person (involving the memoriseer) and troika person (involving any others). The form the verb moldiness also be described in terms of tense. The utmost category is rouseual activity. rideual activity vs. Grammatical sexual practice sex activity refers to the indispensable gender or biological gender, that is, young-begetting(prenominal) or egg-producing(prenominal) and what words agree with it. She, her) refer to womanish entities, whereas (he, his) refer to young-begetting(prenominal) entities. Grammatical sexual urge refers to the oddballs of nouns which is considered manly and fair(prenominal).For example, in Spanish there are phrase to call a noun in feminine (la) or masculine (la) such el sol ( the sun), la ulna (the daydream). It does not imply that the stagnates sex is fe mannish or the suns phallic. The grammar simply states this way to use denomination with different noun. The normative sexual climax grammarian in the 18 century in English do rationale for the proper use of English. For example You mustinessiness not split an infinitive. You must not end a sentence with a preposition. Therefore, traditional teacher would conform sentences like Who did you go with? O With whom did you go? However, we should be atheistic of the origin of some of these rules and asking whether they are appropriately apply to the English language. permits field of operation this traditional rule Mimi must not split an infinitive. The book elaborates by using Captain Kirks infinitive. To boldly go, to solemnly swear, concord to traditionalistic grammar, is inappropriate. To go boldly, boldly to go should be the appropriate form. In Latin grammar, it is fade that infinitive cannot be dislocated from a word because Latin infinitives are one words.However, it is not appropriate to flow this idea over to English where the infinitive form does not consist of a integrity form, but of two words, to and go. The descriptive turn up Analysts collected samples of the language they were interested in and look fored to describe the regular stru cture of the language as it was used, not harmonise to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach. Structural abbreviation Structural digest main pertain is to investigate the dispersion of forms in a engage.The method involves The makes a lot of noise. I perceive yesterday. The use of test-frame that can be sentences with empty slots in them. For example By developing a set of test-frames of this part and discovering which forms fit the slots in the test-frame, we can go a comment of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language. nimble Constituent synopsis is designed to manoeuvre how small constituents (or components) in sentences go unitedly to form bigger constituents. One prefatory step is determine how words go together to form phrases.Applied linguisticsLanguage can be viewed as a social fact, as a psychological state (mental dictionary), as a set of structures (a grammatic system a system to what orders the words have to come in if they are to make sense), or as a collection of outputs (utterances/ sentences spoken or written). Language can be viewed as a set of choices (different ways of saying a sentence), a set of contrasts (an inversion of sentences).Idiolect (I-language language of the individual) the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within the boilersuit system of a reticular language. In a broader sense, psyches idiolect includes their way of communicating for example, their choice of utterances and the way they interpret the utterances made by others.In a narrower sense, an idiolect readiness entail features, either in speech or writing, which distinguish one individual from others, such as o voice quality ( the overall impression that a listener obtains of a speakers voice or characteristics of a special(a)(prenominal) voice that enable the listener to distinguish one voice from another, such as when a person is able to identi fy a scream caller) o seaman when we listen to people speaking, we can hear some sounds or groups of sounds in their speech to be relatively higher or lower than others) o speech rhythm (rhythm in speech is forced by the assure or restful of chest muscles).Many linguists pick out to use the term IDIOLECT for the language of an individual. So you do not speak English, you speak your idiolect. That seems simple plenteous until we ask what English consists of. Presumably it consists of the sum of all the idiolect of people who we agree are speaking English. Do I-language an approach to language which sees it as an internal property of the unman mind and as not something external or an essay to construct grammars masking the way human mind structures language and which (universal) principles are involved.E-language an approach to language which describes the general structures and patterns. E-language= Langue (Assure) = competence (Chomsky) the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared out knowledge (agree to use). Langue is the noble-minded form of a language. Parole (Assure) the actual use of language by people in speech or writing. Competence a persons internalized grammar of a language. This subject matter a persons ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.It also includes a persons knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a fussy language. For example, a speaker of English would gain I involve to go home as an English sentence but would not read a sentence such as I destiny going home even though all the words in it are English words. Competence often refers to the ideal speaker/hearer, that is an reckon but a not real person who would have a pick up knowledge of the whole language. Performance a persons actual use of language.A deviance is made between a persons knowledge of the language (competence) and how a person uses this knowledge in producing and understanding sentences (performance). The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance can be seen, for example, in the production of persistent and complex sentences. concourse may have the competence to reveal an infinitely long sentence but when they actually attempt to use this knowledge (=perform) there are many reasons why they restrict the number of adjectives, adverbs, and clauses in any one sentence.They may run out of breath, or their sterner may get bored or give what has been said if the sentence is too long. In using language, people make errors or false starts. These may be due to performance factors such as fatigue, omit of attention, excitement, nervousness. Their actual use of language on a particular occasion may not theorise their competence. The errors they make are described as examples of performance. Keywords Language the system of human communication which consists of the structured arr angement of sounds or written representation into larger unit e. G. Orpheus, word, sentence, utterance. A social fact, a kind of social contract, or a set of structure r as a collection of output. Idiolect langue for specific group of people or language for individual only the speaker of this language can understand. Utterance a unit of abridgment in speech which has been defined in various way but unremarkably as a sequence of words within a atomic number 53 persons circle at talk that fall under a wizard intonation contour. prevalent grammar a burry which claims to account for grammatical competence of each adult no matter what language he or she speaks.Langue part of language which is not complete in any individual, but exists only in the collectivity. Parole language that is used individually. (I-language) E-language is the external grammatical construction of the internally (mentally) represented grammar of many individual. It is appropriate for social, political, mat hematical and logical statement. I-language language viewed as internal property of human mind or a computational system in human brain. help Sq 1 . The compose says, A language is a social fact, a kind of social contract. What does this mean?This nub that language is the mean of communication which not only an individual but also all people in the community strike and understand it as a hole. community use language as a contract for their chance(a) life, since language is a social fact that people use to understand each other and deliberately set up the proof of their entrust or promise. 2. What do you understand from the examples that follow? A. Kim kissed crocodile. B. The crocodile kissed Kim. C. Kissed crocodile Kim the. Sentence A and B are understandable that is, we can say that they are language which is seen as a set of choice and a set of contrast.A set of choice or contrast means that a group of word are systematically in order that makes us understand what the designing of the sentence is. However, sentence C does not make sense at all, and it is not a language. 3. What is the difference between speak a grammar and speak a language? Speak a language means to speak a language that make other people understand that is, it refers to when people in the society speak language of the society (E-language), which they use it as mean of communication.However, speak grammar refers to when an individual speak his or her own language sticking deep inside their mind or brain, and cannot be dumb by others. This language is not for society, but for individual only. 4. Assure (1969) make an analogy as saying When orchestra plays a symphony, the symphony exists externally to the way in which it is performed that existence is like to langue in language study. The actual performance, which may contain idiosyncrasies or errors, is to be comparable to parole. Use this analogy to explain what E-language and I-language are.This means that E-language is the s ame as langue, which refers to the language that is externally used in the society and it is recognized as the language of the society, which people use it as the mean of contract and communication. However, I-language s equalized to parole referring to the language existing only in the individual, and ordinarily it is not understood by others and considered as the error of language for people in the society. 5. Language is a set of choice and a set of contrast, yet why cant we ever choose to organize the word in utterances in our favored way?even though language is a set of choice and contrast, we cannot righteous organize language as we want because our own placement of language can become l- language which is not understood by others. This is because I-language is the language for individual only, and only the speaker can understand it. Chapter 2 Components of Language Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. Phonology is to uch with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.Phonology is mentioned with the abstract set of sounds in a language that allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we hear and say. Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words or each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language. /p/, lb/ are homes of English. O Phoneme has contrastive property. If we interchange one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. O English is often considered to have 44 phonemes 24 consonants and 20 vowels.Phone is the different versions of the phoneme regularly scramd in actual speech ( in the mouth). Allophone is a group of several phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme. For example, the t sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger pad of air (aspir ated) than is present in the t sound in the word star. Minimal pair is when two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme), occurring in the same position, and which also differ in meaning. For example, fan-van, bet-bat, site-side, put-shut are some examples of minimal pairs.The proficient Patterns of Language Minimal set is when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position in the word). For example, bet-set-vet-get-let and big-pig-rig-fig-wig are examples of minimal set. Phoneticss is the arrangements of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) in a language. For example, in English, the consonant groups /SSP/ and /star/ can occur at the beginning of a word, as in sprout, strain, but they cannot occur at the end of a word.Syllable is a unit in speech which is often chronic than one sound and smaller than a whole word. For example, the word terminology consist s of v syllables term-mi-no-lo- gay. O A syllable contains onset (consonant(s)) and verse line which has two part nucleus (vowel) and last (consonant(s)). The basic structure of the kind of syllable plunge in English words can be C.V. (green), polyvinyl chloride (eggs), C.V. (them), etc. Consonant cluster is a sequence of two or more consonants. Consonants clusters may occur at the beginning of a word (an initial cluster), at the end of a word (a last(a) cluster) or within a word (a medial cluster).Co-articulation is the process of making one sound about at the same time as the next sound. Circulation has two well-known personal effects assimilation and elision. O Assimilation occurs when a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows or precedes it, or when two sound segments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken or copied by the other. O ejection is the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech. O Everyones normal beech ent ails assimilation and elision which should be regarded as some fount of sloppiness or laziness.The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to probe to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlies the actual use of sounds in language. wrangle and Word-formation Process -Etymology the study of the origin and tale of a word -Coinage the invention of totally new terms (Ex aspirin, nylon, Baseline) -Borrowing words that is borrowed from other languages (Ex Piano(lately), Sofa(Arabic),Yogurt(Turkish)) -Compounding two separate words are Joint together (bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, textbook) -Blending combination of 2 separate forms to produce a single new term. Ex motel (motor/hotel), smog (smoke/haze) -Clipping reduction of words more than one syllable to a shorter form. Ex condo (condominium), bra (brassiere), ad (advertisement) -Facilitation reduction of wo rds which also change the function, usually from noun to verb.Ex act (from Emotion), donate (from Donation), babysat (from Babysitter) -Conversion a change in the function of a word, esp. noun becomes verb without any deduction. Ex Someone has to go the meeting. Or We bottled the homebred Acronyms new words that are formed from initial letters of a set of other words. Ex CD (compact disk), VS. (video cassette recorder), ATM (automatic bank clerk machine), PIN (personal identification number) -Derivation the affixes (prefix & suffix) added to the beginning or the end of a word.Ex unhappy, misrepresent, Joyful, careless morphology the study of forms morphology Morpheme a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. Lexical Free functional Morpheme linage bound inflectional Free morpheme morpheme that can stand by themselves as single word. Lexical morpheme set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs. For example Car, red, drive. Functional morpheme functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, expressions and pronoun. For expo and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in the, them.Bound morpheme morpheme that cannot stand alone and must wedded to another forms. Derivation morpheme the affixes that make words into a different grammatical category from stem. For expo -full, -less, re-, UN- Inflectional morpheme set of bound morphemes to demo aspects of the aromatically function of a word. 2 inflections link up to nouns, -gs (possessive) and -s (plural). 4 inflections attached to verbs, -s (3rd person singular), -inning (present participle), -De (past tense) and -en (past participle). Inflections attached to adjectives -est. (superlative) and -re (comparative). Lymphoma the group or set of different morphs, all versions of one morpheme OR any of the different forms of a morpheme. For example -s, -sees, 0 (zero morph). They are all lymphomas of the plural morpheme. Grammar traditionalistic grammar a grammar which is usually b ased on earlier grammar of Latin r Greek and applied to the psycho analysis of newer languages such as English. Agreement In English sentence, agreement is based on the category of number, whether the noun is singular or plural.It is also based on the category of person, that is, offset printing person (involving the speaker), siemens person (involving the hearer) and thirdly person (involving any others). The form the verb must also be described in terms of tense. The final category is gender. sexual urge vs. Grammatical gender Gender refers to the born(p) gender or biological gender, that is, male or distaff and what words agree with it. She, her) refer to young-bearing(prenominal) entities, whereas (he, his) refer to male entities. Grammatical Gender refers to the types of nouns which is considered masculine and feminine.For example, in Spanish there are article to call a noun in feminine (la) or masculine (la) such el sol ( the sun), la ulna (the moon). It does not impl y that the moons sex is female or the suns male. The grammar simply states this way to use article with different noun. The prescriptive approach syntactician in the xviii century in English create rule for the proper use of English. For example You must not split an infinitive. You must not end a sentence with a preposition. Therefore, traditional teacher would cover sentences like Who did you go with? O With whom did you go? However, we should be questioning of the origin of some of these rules and asking whether they are appropriately applied to the English language. allows study this traditional rule Mimi must not split an infinitive. The book elaborates by using Captain Kirks infinitive. To boldly go, to solemnly swear, according to traditional grammar, is inappropriate. To go boldly, boldly to go should be the appropriate form. In Latin grammar, it is sink that infinitive cannot be disordered from a word because Latin infinitives are single words.However, it is not appr opriate to comport this idea over to English where the infinitive form does not consist of a single form, but of two words, to and go. The descriptive approach Analysts collected samples of the language they were interested in and attempted to describe the regular structure of the language as it was used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach. Structural abridgment Structural analysis main concern is to investigate the scattering of forms in a engage.The method involves The makes a lot of noise. I heard yesterday. The use of test-frame that can be sentences with empty slots in them. For example By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering which forms fit the slots in the test-frame, we can produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language. warm Constituent compendium is designed to show how small constituents (or components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents . One basic step is find how words go together to form phrases.